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reply to each post with 100 words as if you are me and reply hello (person name)
reply to each post with 100 words as if you are me and reply hello (person name)
post 1
Toni Hatcher posted May 6, 2024 8:56 AM
Good Morning Class and Professor,
The rise of the Ottoman Empire from an obscure small political entity is without a doubt one of the most important phenomena of the late medieval period.[1] The success of Osman and the rise of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to several key factors.
Osman’s leadership was pivotal in establishing a solid administrative and military foundation, which enabled effective governance over a small territory and the organization of a capable military force. Additionally, favorable geopolitical conditions played a significant role as the decline of the Byzantine Empire and the fragmentation of Seljuk territories created opportunities for expansion. “”The Ottoman’s were fortunate in their geography. Osman’s lands were close to Constantinople, bringing him to contact with the governors of the Byzantine towns in north-west Anatolia, with whom he competed for influence as well as for pasture to satisfy the flocks of his followers. This proximity to Constantinople offered the promise of great rewards should that city fall, but also put the Ottomans under pressure from the Byzantium army as it sought to protect what remained of its beleaguered territory.”[2]
The Ottomans capitalized on the weaknesses of their neighbors, exploiting the internal strife within the Byzantine Empire and the fragmented Seljuk states. Moreover, the Ottomans demonstrated military superiority and innovation, adopting effective tactics, and forging strategic alliances. The Ottoman army’s combination of cavalry, infantry, and artillery, along with their adaptability in tactics and logistics, contributed to their military successes and territorial expansion.[3]
Beyond external circumstances, the Ottomans developed a robust governance system characterized by centralized rule, religious tolerance, and efficient administration, which contributed significantly to their ability to manage and expand their empire. Thus, while external weaknesses of neighboring states facilitated Ottoman expansion, it was the combination of Osman’s leadership, military prowess, strategic adaptability, and effective governance that ultimately propelled the Ottomans to power.
In summary, the rise of the Ottoman Empire represents a transformative event in late medieval history. Osman’s decisive leadership was instrumental in establishing a strong administrative and military foundation, pivotal for effective governance and military prowess over a modest territory. Proximity to Constantinople presented both opportunities and challenges, necessitating deft maneuvering amid competing interests. The Ottomans adeptly exploited vulnerabilities in neighboring states, leveraging internal strife to their advantage. Additionally, their military superiority and innovative tactics, including a well-rounded army combining cavalry, infantry, and artillery, propelled their territorial expansion. Furthermore, the Ottoman governance system, characterized by centralized rule and religious tolerance, facilitated effective management and assimilation of diverse populations. Ultimately, it was Osman’s leadership, coupled with military prowess, strategic flexibility, and efficient governance, that propelled the Ottomans to ascendancy, leaving an enduring legacy in the annals of history.
Toni
[1] Mesut Uyar & Edward J. Erickson. A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Ataturk. (New York: ABC-CLIO. 2009): pg. x.
[2] Caroline Finkel. Osman’s Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire. (New York City, NY: Basic Books, 2007): pg. 34-35
[3] Mesut Uyar & Edward J. Erickson. A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Ataturk. (New York: ABC-CLIO. 2009):
Post 2
Melissa Hummel posted May 7, 2024 9:02 PM
Osman appeared to be an adept statesman. Prior to his essential establishment of the Ottoman Empire, he worked within the weakening Seljuk Empire. As a nomadic chief he expanded territory, gaining followers with each new expansion.[Lectures] The weakness of the various tribes was similar to those who helped usher in the collapse of the Roman Empire – fighting between factions, separation, etc., allowed a power vacuum to exist for Osman to enter and take advantage of. [Traditions & Encounters] However, this success was not just due to his military skill – it also had to do with how he established his control and carried out government practices. This included the ability to effectively incorporate conquered people into the empire while establishing a government that sought to protect and take care of its people. [Lectures] This sort of structure becomes incredibly popular, and a lasting continuity of the Ottoman Empire as communities, such as millets, continued into the 20th century (though this will become a point of conflict within the empire).
When the Ottomans were able to successfully topple the Seljuks and the Byzantines, I think a lot of factors came into play. Both were experiencing a weakened state due to events such as the Crusades, the Plague, and tribal conflicts, which made the use of the Ottoman ghazis, and later the devershirme and Janissary system all the more successful in assisting in dismantling these empires through expansion (though the Ottomans were not the only empires assisting in this). [Traditions & Encounters] The Ottoman’s use of gunpowder also played a significant role (our World History curriculum often refers to the Ottomans, Safavids, and the Mughals as the Islamic Gunpowder Empires). It seems as though Osman, and his successors were able to take advantage of the various declines occurring, then were able to successfully keep their conquered territory mostly happy. Finkel explains how despite Islam being a major part of the empire itself, that the traditions, stories, and societies incorporated the conquered Christians into the empire including intermarriage between faiths. (Osman’s Dream) This also will continue through out the life of the empire, as through much of Ottoman history, religious tolerance was present as Jews and Christians were considered “People of the Book” and could not be enslaved just as Muslims could not be (nor could Zoroastrians). Non-Muslims were required to pay the jizya (a tax) and were exempt from military service – though many would convert to Islam.
Referenced Works
1. APUS Lectures, Week 1, Arabic Tribes, Osman and Orhan
2. Traditions and Encounters by Jerry Bentley, Herbert Ziegler, and Heather Streets-Salter, 6th edition, pgs 379-380, 610-12
3. Osman’s Dream, Caroline Finkel, pgs 10-11
-Melissa
post 3
Timothy Harshfield posted May 8, 2024 12:46 AM
Osman, considered the founder of the Ottoman Empire, could be considered a product of “right place right time” when looking at the rise of his heirs in place of the Seljuk Turks, Mongols, and eventually replacing the Byzantine Empire. However, Osman’s own leadership abilities, strategy, and vision also served to differentiate him from contemporaries, any of whom might have risen in his place given the circumstances.
The Byzantine Empire, the surviving Eastern half of the Roman Empire, thrived for centuries while Western Europe sank into the “Dark Ages” (a misnomer but this is for a separate discussion). However, the Crusades brought western attention back to the East, and Byzantine power faltered as an unintended consequence. Byzantium never fully recovered from the sack of 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, and eventually sank into civil war.[1] The weaknesses of the Byzantines were on full display in the Battle of Bapheus in 1301 where Osman’s troops routed the Byzantine forces near the Byzantine capital of Constantinople.[2]
Additionally, Mongol invasions halted the growth of Seljuk power in the middle of the 13th century and left the Seljuk factions fragmented.[3] As the Ottomans expanded and became successors to the Seljuks of earlier, they utilized oral histories (whether fact or fiction is up for debate) to place Osman in a higher status than historical rivals, and simultaneously to boost their own claims centuries later. One particularly bizarre story showed how Osman and his army emasculated enemies on the battlefield (if you’re feeling particularly brave you can carefully google “The Plain of Testicles”).[4]
To claim Osman’s (and his heirs) rise was due only to the weaknesses of neighbors unfairly discredits his own abilities and those of his successors. Osman’s reign was defined by a focus on westward expansion, which set him apart from other Seljuk leaders who were more focused on internal power struggles and maintaining their territories in the east. The Muslim world as a whole suffered after the Crusades. This is somewhat ironic when you consider the benefits the Crusades brought to Europe despite the ultimate defeat in 1291 when the last Crusader State of Acre was reconquered.[5] Europe rose in prominence following the Crusades, and the Muslim world largely sank into in-fighting after being assaulted from all sides.[6] During this period, Osman’s vision of conquest and state-building as well as the embrace of Islam (particularly Sufi mysticism) by his son Orhan, greatly enhanced the ability of the Ottoman Empire to grow.[7]
– Tim
[1] Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923 (New York: Basic Books, 2007), 3.
[2] Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 5.
[3] Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 4.
[4] Marc David Baer, The Ottomans: Khans, Caesars, and Caliphs (New York: Basic Books, 2021), 18.
[5] Amin Maalouf, The Crusades through Arab Eyes (New York: Schocken Books, 1989), 258.
[6] Maalouf, The Crusades through Arab Eyes, 264.
[7] Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 9.
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